Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice Essay

Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice is a manifestation of creativity in its bravest and most daring form. Never has a woman dared to write about the female specie in the form that Austen did; bold yet graceful and assertive but polite. Pride and Prejudice proves to be one of the timeless pieces of Literature because of its interesting content that brings about new and substantial insight every time it is read. Perhaps one of Austen’s trademark in writing is the vividness of her description and the symbolism it has. In this paper, I would like to highlight how Austen carefully and vivaciously feast on the description of the home as a determining element to the establishment of her characters and how the plot would flow. It is interesting to note that she was very careful and detailed about her descriptions yet was able to leave rooms for curiosity and imagination. The house of the Bennets is more than just a structure but a fertile ground planted with many insightful details that will bring life and color to the characters thus heightening the relationships of people and events. In the house of the Bennets, only the father is male. The rest of the members were female. This alone was enough to spark intrigue and controversy in the novel. Jane Austen lived in a time where women are treated as second- class citizens. In the house, quantity-wise, the females are more dominant, yet the father holds the power not only within the halls of their house but in the decisions made by his wife and daughters. This tells us that in the house of Bennets, no matter how many female members there were, the male member will always have the supremacy. This is also true in the Regency Society as male dominance is seen and observed everywhere. â€Å"Compared with some families, I believe we were; but such of us as wished to learn, never wanted the means. We were always encouraged to read, and had all the masters that were necessary. Those who chose to be idle, certainly might. † Chapter 6, Volume 2. â€Å"In such cases, a woman has not often much beauty to think of. † Chapter 1, Volume 1 The four daughters were treated fairly and dearly. There were the gems of the house and the life of the family. In all fairness to Mr. And Mrs. Bennet, the daughters were raised well. They were given the best that their parents can give. It may not equal that of the society’s bourgeois, but it had to be given to Mr. And Mrs. Bennet that they tried, and that alone was enough. The ladies were beautiful, that’s undeniable. But among the four sisters, Elizabeth was the one outstanding everyone else in the book. Not only did she manage to make a mark in the novel, she is regarded as one of the most famous characters in English Literature. This was because Elizabeth showed remarkable attitude, her beauty rivals her personality. Not only did she possess the looks, she had the attitude that magnetizes people. But then, I perceive Mrs. Bennet as one of the most interesting characters in the novel as her desire to have her daughters marry rich men so to elevate their already degraded status in the society. Mrs. Bennet’s role in the novel can be interpreted as a wonderful mother wanting a bright future for her children but done in a negative way. This I would have to note that the daughters were perceived as objects that can be given away for material wealth. This is very rampant in many societies in the world, not only in the regency society. â€Å"Our habits of expence make us too dependant, and there are not many in my rank of life who can afford to marry without some attention to money† Chapter 10, Volume 2. Other issues explored was the idea that women are but appendages of men; that women were born to be accessories of the male specie as if there is supremacy in being the first one to be created. We have to admit that women who are physically attractive are most likely to become wives of rich and influential men because they see them as affirmation of their masculinity. This is a very abusive yet accepted fact in the society. Women become objects that can be bought at the right price and the saddest part is that some people actually accede to it wanting nothing to do about it. â€Å"Mr. Bennet, how can you abuse your own children in such way? Chapter 1, Volume 1. However, it is very positive to note that even at the darkness of such mad society, love finds its way. â€Å"I am excessively diverted. But it is so strange! † Chapter 15, Volume 3. I would have to say that Mr. Bennet and Elizabeth were the closest in the family and thus the most intelligent members of the household. This union of intellectual bond resulted to the education of Elizabeth’s character that she learned to gear away from how her mother wished her and her sisters to be. She was able to determine that there are more important things than money, that her love for Mr. Darcy should not be stained by the lust for money and power. Elizabeth was able to acquire the greatest kind of wealth possible for any woman that is having a man who would truly love her, embracing what she is and what she’s not. â€Å"I cannot believe it. Why should they try to influence him? They can only wish his happiness, and if he is attached to me, no other woman can secure it. † Chapter 1, Volume 2.

Foot Binding, Status and Society in Early China Essay

In early China, the Han Dynasty to the end of the Manchu Dynasty, there was a practice known as foot binding. Foot binding was considered a symbol of status for women for many reasons. The disabling effects of foot binding caused women not to be able to participate in any form of hard labour, it confined them to the home, and was considered erotic by men, thus acceptable. The explanation for binding ones feet tells us that society at the time was extremely patriarchal, that a women’s chastity was extremely important, and that it was imperative for women to conform to changing cultural ideals. Foot binding was a practice that started during the Tang Dynasty when a prince, Li Yo, enjoyed watching his concubine dance before him with tiny bound â€Å"lily feet†[i]. Since then it became popular in the Han Dynasty. Women would wash and massage their daughters’ feet, turn their toes under, and then they would break their daughters’ arches, and finally wrap the foot tightly in a cotton bandage pulling the big toe and heel together as well as hold the rest of the toes in place[ii]. The average length of the foot was three inches after the process had been completed. This caused the foot to be seriously deformed. The women would be disabled to the point where they could barely walk; sometimes toes would even fall off as a result of the bindings[iii]. Working and peasant class women would not usually have their feet bound because it was necessary for them to be able to do manual labour, but if mothers desired for their daughters to marry into good families they would risk losing their daughters labour to bind their daughters’ feet. [pic] Foot binding was considered a symbol of status for several reasons, many elating to how women were seen during this era. The earlier Chinese peoples had a society based on Confucian values. Confucianism has it’s foundation on the Yin and Yang ideal[iv]. Yin is the representative of all that is bad, weak, and female; and Yang is all that is good, strong, and male. The same can be seen in early Chinese values. At the time of foot binding the Chinese felt that women were weak, immoral, and should be subservient to men. Men felt that the female body should be repressed to keep it chaste and to keep women in their inferior place. Therefore the bound foot allowed women to show their loyalty, publicly, to these ideals. A woman who lived as an obedient and chaste person was desirable to men at the time and foot binding was a way for women to show that they were this way. There are other reasons as well, why foot binding was used as an emblem of status. Besides being a sign of chastity and obedience in a woman, being desirable traits, foot binding was used to show that a female was of a wealthy background (in the beginning). A woman who had her feet bound as a child could not endure standing for any lengthy period of time unassisted. Standing on a bound foot was very painful and most carried a cane to shift their weight on. Therefore, if women could barely stand with bound feet, they also could not work. This meant that only women from families that could afford to do without their labour could afford to bind their feet. As a result when a man’s family, of wealthy background, was in search of a bride they would search for a bride with bound feet because they not only would know that she was from a wealthy background herself, but knew she would not leave the home often, and would not cheat. Mothers often started the binding process on their daughters as young as four years old to ensure their daughters a good marriage later in life[v]. This shows that it was important for a woman to marry into a good family because women were willing to endure such pain for elevated social status and a secure life. When foot binding was prevalent, a man’s needs were second only to a parent’s needs. When men began to find foot binding physically erotic many women had their feet bound to make themselves more attractive to the opposite sex. Just as women today squeeze their feet into tight torturous high heels for the sake of cosmetics, Chinese women bound their feet for the same reason; for the sake of being more physically attractive for men. Men found the â€Å"staggering dance-like walk[vi]† of the bound foot to be extremely erotic. As well the struggle to walk actually made the muscles of the vagina tighter, increasing sexual pleasure for men[vii]. During this period men found the foot to be the most alluring part of the female body, when tightly bound to a length of three inches. Therefore not only was a bound foot a symbol of wealth and adherence to cultural values, but it was also a sign of beauty. The Manchu Dynasty tried to abolish the tradition of foot binding during its rule, but failed. The practice of foot binding went on in China for approximately one thousand years. It was outlawed after 1911 when the Manchu Dynasty fell. There are actually women who still practice foot binding today because they feel it is attractive, but their numbers are very small[viii]. Though the practice is almost extinct today, foot binding continued somewhat after its being outlawed for the sake of tradition which is very important in Chinese culture, then and now. The entire practice of foot binding tells the historian a lot about Chinese society up to the end of the reign of the Manchu Dynasty. Foot binding shows how China was an extreme patriarchy. Society at the time felt that a woman’s place was in the home and to be chaste, a bound foot kept her there. A woman who had bound feet openly showed that she was more than willing to conform to the values of the age for the sake of status. The practice of foot binding also showed that when it came time to be married it was important to be from a wealthy background to ensure a good match, and stability within the marriage. Finally, foot binding shows that in this era women were seen as objects for they enjoyment of men. From the first concubine who bound her feet and danced for a prince to satisfy his desire, to later women who did it to be seen as sexual objects, foot binding has been a custom to gratify men’s desires, despite the pain and malformation it causes.

A Critical Analysis Of Itc Distribution Channel Marketing Essay

A Critical Analysis Of Itc Distribution Channel Marketing Essay Abstract Distribution channel is having an important role in positioning of the product because we know that distribution channel is tool by which we can make reach our product to the final consumers. That’s why selecting a distribution channel is an important aspect of building a competitive advantage for businesses of every size. Distribution channels include your own direct sales force, retailers, distributors and the Internet. The right distribution channel ensures that customers in different locations around the country, or around the world, can buy your products and get the right level of service from your company. To select the right distribution channel for your business, you need to consider what a channel can offer, including location and reach, skills and resources, management costs and degree of control. This is a project to study, analyze and report the distribution channel of the FMCG giant ITC. The project would take help of various sources of secondary data ab out the organization; it’s functioning in terms of distribution channels it employs and the management of these channels in order to stay competitive and ubiquitous against competition. For that we have reviewed the organization and its product lines on a macro level and critical analysis of distribution channel for a specific product line. In that way we would be able to ascertain what are strength and weaknesses of the given distributions channel. We have also drawn out certain similarities and contrasts between ITC’s and other FMCG’s distributions channel to help us add some recommendations at the end of the report on how the potential of the distribution channel and its efficiency can be improved. Contents Introduction – ITC ITC was incorporated on August 24, 1910 under the name Imperial Tobacco Company of India Limited. As the Company’s ownership progressively Indianised, the name of the Company was changed from Imperial Tobacco Company of Ind ia Limited to India Tobacco Company Limited in 1970 and then to I.T.C. Limited in 1974. In recognition of the Company’s multi-business portfolio encompassing a wide range of businesses – Fast Moving Consumer Goods comprising Foods, Personal Care, Cigarettes and Cigars, Branded Apparel, Education and Stationery Products, Incense Sticks and Safety Matches, Hotels, Paperboards & Specialty Papers, Packaging, Agri-Business and Information Technology – the full stops in the Company’s name were removed effective September 18, 2001. The Company now stands rechristened ‘ITC Limited’. Though the first six decades of the Company’s existence were primarily devoted to the growth and consolidation of the Cigarettes and Leaf Tobacco businesses, the Seventies witnessed the beginnings of a corporate transformation that would usher in momentous changes in the life of the Company. Key landmarks in history of ITC limited 1925 – Packaging & Printing Business was set up as a strategic backward integration for ITC’s Cigarettes business 1975 -Launch of Hotels business with the acquisition of a hotel in Chennai which was rechristened ‘ITC-Welcomgroup Hotel Chola’ 1979 – ITC entered the  Paperboards business  by promoting ITC Bhadrachalam Paperboards Limited 1985 – Surya Tobacco Co. set up in Nepal as an Indo-Nepal and British joint venture.

The advantages and disadvantages of robots Essay - 1

The advantages and disadvantages of robots - Essay Example In simple terms robots can be defined as a mechanical device that may resemble sometimes a human and is capable of performing several tasks or often complex human tasks which may be programmed in advance or perform on command. The following report includes the discussion about the advantages of robots in this innovative and technological world. The report also includes the description of the disadvantages of robots. Finally a conclusion has been drawn in the report related to the research done. There are several advantages of robots, as they are machines which can perform several tasks and actions which humans cannot do. Robots can work 24/7 without any need of salary and food, and they can also perform tasks with accuracy and consistency. Robots are advantageous because they can perform tasks faster than humans along with more accuracy and consistency. Robots can be used in doing several tasks like in production, household etc. using robots in the industrial sector have several advantages as they can help in improving the quality of products and also will reduce the wastage or breakages. Robots can be very advantages in business terms as they can increase the level of production and can also decrease the cost per unit of production as compared to human labour (Gray, 88). This is because they have the ability to work constantly without any breaks, vacation, and sleep and also has a potential to be more productive than any human worker. Robots also has the advantages of work place safety, as the workers are moved to the supervisory role and the humans don’t have to perform dangerous actions in several hazardous settings. Robots may also lead to savings as higher workers safety also leads to savings. This also leads to lower level of concerns for the workers insurances by employers. Robots also perform each and every task faster than any human which helps in saving of time. Robots measurements and actions are more

Target Market and Competitive - chipotle Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Target Market and Competitive - chipotle - Essay Example od with integrity is our commitment to finding the very best ingredients raised with respect for the animals, the environment, and the farmers.† From the statement, it is clearly evident that the restaurant has ethical practices in line with the mission’s description. The main goal of the restaurant is to provide customers with high quality food associated with a high level of integrity. In fact, the food provided by the restaurant has a reliable source and preparation of the food is carried out with a lot of dedication, integrity and care. Therefore, the high quality service availed by the company is an added advantage because it is tricky to identify the food source people utilize every day (Halverson). The target market of Chiptole restaurant is adults aged from 18 years to 24 years old. The targeted customers comprise of high school and college educated persons. The restaurant targets all the people who value freshness in foods such as organic, natural and homemade foods. The income brackets of the target market ranges between $10, 000 to $60,000. 82 percent of the target market is Caucasian and 69 percent do not have children. The target market comprises of individuals who are image conscious, tech shrewdness, love an active lifestyle, financially unfocused and environmentally conscious. The targeted consumers add value to the firm because most of them respond quickly to the products offered by the restaurant. Chiptole’s customers are persons who love cooking their foods and others consider cooking as a hobby or a passion. In addition, some of the customers have an interest in issues to do with food network. Overall, the target market is all those people who value freshness in foods, and in their shopping behavior, they value anything fresh. It is evident that the consumer behavior of the target market adds value to the mission of Chiptole restaurant because the main goal of the restaurant is to provide high quality foods to the customers.

In instruction box Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

In instruction box - Essay Example The threats are the elements that could lead the business to trouble. It is important to conduct a SWOT analysis as it may later inform the business planning steps that are directed to the realization of business objectives (Armstrong, 1996). Every serious business should conduct and implement a SWOT analysis every so often to evaluate its position in the market. This paper will involve a SWOT analysis of Nike Company and will go further to analyse what businesses need to do to gain a stronger market position. About Nike Company Nike Incorporated is a multinational business that designs, develops and markets apparel, footwear, accessories and equipment. The American company has its headquarters in the Portland metropolitan area of Oregon. Nike as the company is popularly referred to is among the fortune 500 companies and boasts of being a leading producer of apparel, sports equipment and athletic shoes in the world (Nike Inc., 2013). Established in 1964 under the name of Blue Ribbon Sports, the corporation has several brands to its name, the main ones being Nike, Nike Skateboarding, Nike Golf, and Nike Pro. The organization has a number of subsidiaries including Converse and Hurley International, operates a number of retail stores, and sponsors several high profile sports teams and athletes from different nations across the globe. Nike SWOT Analysis Strengths Nike Inc. enjoys several strengths to its advantage. The company has been in existence since 1964 which may translate to a lot of experience in its field. The Nike brand has become a global brand over the years and enjoys strong brand equity. Given that the brand is linked with many famous athletes and favorite sports teams, it enjoys a huge amount of endorsements from its beneficiaries and by extension, the support of the masses spread across the world (Marketing Teacher, 2013). It is a fact that the establishment of manufacturing plants, buildings and other immovable assets cost huge capital investments and ties an organization’s finances. While many organizations have their capital tied to such assets as buildings and factories, this is not the case with Nike Inc. The corporation also does not have its capital tied to workers engaged in the production of its products. This being the case, the business thrives on a lean workforce and therefore operates on a lean budget. Furthermore, relying on the facilities of other organizations to manufacture its products gives Nike the opportunity to produce its products at the lowest possible costs without compromising on quality (Marketing Teacher, 2013). This arrangement affords Nike huge profit margins especially considering that it thrives on a lean workforce and budget. The organization has a robust research and development team that work toward coming up with high quality innovative products. The organization is one that produces branded clothing - a field in which there is little to innovate about (Tech Analysis Blogger, 2013). W hile this is the case, the company has managed to come up with innovative products that meet the needs of various demographics. The company also has a high score with regard to its environmental record. The Clean Air-Cool Planet, the company among the top companies that are climate friendly. Weaknesses One of the weaknesses that

The UK yoghurt market (marketing plan) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

The UK yoghurt market (marketing plan) - Essay Example Yoghurt is used to supplement the main diet. Various developments have been registered in the production and marketing of this product in different markets across the globe. Different production companies have developed different brands of the product leading to an increased competition in the market. Besides, other related milk products give stiff competition to yoghurt in the market. The company that is to succeed in the market has to be sensitive and able to respond to the changing market trends. It has to develop a product brand that meets the changing needs of the clients. The organization should develop a marketing strategy that ensures proper brand positioning in the market. There has been a significant growth in the UK yoghurt market in the recent years with 21% increase in the period 2006- 2011 (UK-June 2011 Report, 2011). One of the players in the UK yoghurt is Yeo Valley Organic. This is a farming and dairy company situated in the Yeo Valley of Somerset, England. The company deals in a variety of dairy products and other desserts. Initially starting with the natural yoghurt, the company has expanded its operations to produce more brands of the products to meet the customer needs in relation to tastes or costs of the products. Other companies offer similar products in the market leading to increased competition in the UK yoghurt market. The organization is then faced with the challenge to develop products that rank above those produced by the competitors in customer satisfaction. A good market plan will help the company to position its brand above the competing brands. This calls for an analysis of all the market forces in the UK yoghurt market and id entifying procedures of overcoming the forces. Due to the changing customer needs, the organization has introduced a new product that is of better medicinal value. Apart from the normal ingredients, this new product has a component that makes it suitable for relieving mid pain. The company is in the process of marketing this new product. This paper illustrates a market plan that is to be adopted by Yeo Valley Organic to help achieve its marketing objectives. It is a one-year program to market the new yoghurt products by the company. 2. Mission and Business objectives The management at Yeo Valley Organic has noted that the quality of the products can be improved through proper care given to the dairy animals. This requires proper environmental conservation initiatives. Thus, the organization is committed to providing quality products to customers while reducing the adverse effects of their operations on the environment to ensure sustainable production. The organization has set a numb er of objectives that are concerned with management of environment. It is concerned with ensuring sustainable production in order to survive in the future market. To reduce the production cost

Education and its Influence on Different Socio-economic Spheres Essay

Education and its Influence on Different Socio-economic Spheres - Essay Example In many societies, education is defined as a pillar of strength, alleviating the masses from ignorance and paving the way toward a bigger and brighter future. Education systems perform a fundamental role in the development of human attitudes and behavior. It directly affects several spheres of day-to-day living from health, gender and democracy to interpersonal relationships, environmentalism and nationality. Education and Health There is considerable evidence that education is strongly linked to health and to determinants of health such as healthy behaviour, risky contexts and preventative service use (Partnership for Child Development, 2013). However, education does not act in seclusion from other factors, such as income. Income is a notably significant factor that interacts in many essential ways with education, as an influencing factor on health. This makes it hard to assess their independent effects. However, empirical investigations often find the effect of education on health is at least as great as the effect of income. Education impacts on health in two ways; firstly through teaching that enables children to learn specifically about health (often known as skills-based health education) and secondly through the educational process as a whole which provides skills such as critical thinking and making choices that enable children to opt for healthy lifestyles (Partnership for Child Development, 2013). ... Certain differences between the two genders are biological; they arise from physical and other differences that are linked to the different genders. In most societies, men and women have different roles and statuses. It’s easy to draw connections between the behaviour of men and women, and the physical differences that we can observe. The conclusion can then be drawn that differences in behaviour can be attributed to physical differences between the two genders and that the differences in their social roles and positions grow out of their different patterns of behaviour, their abilities and limitations (Teachers Talking about Learning, 2002). However, upon review of biology, psychology, anthropology and education, we find that it’s very difficult to prove which behaviours in men and women arise from physical differences. Many differences, we find, could be produced by the different ways that men and women are brought up as children and arguably the education they receiv e. In relation to thinking and learning processes, and consequently the ability to learn, males and females are more alike than different. Education and Sex Evaluations of comprehensive sex education programs show that these programs can help youth delay onset of sexual activity, reduce the frequency of sexual activity, reduce number of sexual partners, and increase condom and contraceptive use. Importantly, the evidence shows youth who receive comprehensive sex education are not more likely to become sexually active, increase sexual activity, or experience negative sexual health outcomes. Effective programs exist for youth from a variety of racial, cultural, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Researchers studied the National Survey of

Program capstone IP1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Program capstone IP1 - Essay Example Planning as practice of theory of managements, used by many organizations like Microsoft Corporation, involves selecting missions and objectives and the actions to achieve them. It requires decision-making like choosing future courses of action from among alternatives. The plans range from overall purposes and objectives to the most detailed arrangements to be taken. No real plan exists until a decision a commitment of human and material resources needs to be made. In other words, before a decision is made, all that exists is study of planning, analysis, or a proposal; there is no real plan. Use of organization as the second theory of management, Microsoft Corporation management team and the whole staff usually works together to achieve some goal must have duties to take care of. Generally, these roles have to be defined and structured by someone who wants to make sure that people contribute in a specific way to efforts of group. Organizing, therefore, is that part of management that involves establishing an intentional structure of roles for people to fill in a company. Intentional in that all tasks necessary to accomplish goals are assigned and assigned to people who can perform to their best. Indeed, the purpose of an organizational structure is to help in creating an environment for human performance. However, designing an organizational structure is not an easy managerial task because many problems are encountered in making structures fitting situations, together with both defining the kind of jobs that must be done and finding the people to do them. For Leading as the third theory of management, it means influencing of employees so that they will contribute to organization and group goals is widely used in Microsoft Corporation to mention; it has to do predominantly with the interpersonal feature of management. Most important problems to managers arise from people their desires plus defiance, their behavior as groups and individuals. Hence, effective

Description of 5 microbial diseases Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Description of 5 microbial diseases - Essay Example B. bifidum produces vitamins like B6, B9 and B12 – a deficiency of these vitamins may lead to anemia. Bifidobacterium longum : Most of this bacteria is found in the colon but it also inhabits the stomach. It contributes to our organism by helping maintain equilibrium of intestinal flora, preventing intestinal tumors, and increasing the availability of food nutrients. Lactobacillus rhamnosus: This bacteria is known for its ability to survive under harsh conditions in the digestive system and urinary tract. It can help the organism fight against inflammation and infections by increasing virus and â€Å"bad† bacteria resistance. It is believed that L. rhamnosus helps the prevention of allergies and intestinal hypersensitivity. Bacillus coagulans: This gram-positive bacteria helps improve the vaginal flora, reliefs abdominal pain and bloating in people who suffer from Irritable Bowel Syndrome, and increases immune responses against viruses. Leprosy, also known as Hansens disease (HD), is a chronic intracellular bacterial infectious disease caused by a microorganism that mainly targets the skin and peripheral nerves. This disease has a sad past because people who had it were usually discriminated against and isolated from society. Today, however, it can be treated and cured. It is transmitted from one person to another. The contaminated germs can be expelled from one person through the mouth and inhaled by another individual, penetrating the nasal mucosa. The microorganism can also enter the body through open wounds in the skin. In this case, intimate and prolonged contact is necessary. That is why it is very important that family members of the individual diagnosed with leprosy be tested for the disease. The form that HD will be manifested will depend on the host immune response to the bacillus that causes the disease. Leprosy can be classified in five different forms from mild to severe: Indeterminate leprosy

Retailer Companies Essay Example for Free

Retailer Companies Essay Amazon Amazon is an online retailer however there have been talks and news articles of the company planning to open a warehouse store in New York City. However being an online only retailer means the company can meet any customer target and offer shopping to anyone. This removes travel time, travel costs and parking costs which appeal to more customers. This can also appeal to younger shoppers aged 16+ who are unable to drive and must pay out a large charge in travel fare. There is also a larger reach in the consumer area and they now have the ability to reach a worldwide target. Also being an online only business they can give specific and limited discounting to their products. New Look New look is a multiple store that usually located in an in town area. Being located in town has many advantages and disadvantages. One of the advantages to being an in town store is the easy access by both public and personal transport. However a disadvantage to this is the large travel costs both paying for tickets on trains or busses but also petrol and parking costs. A second advantage in the allotted sale space can be increased and the store can have a larger floor space. However due to this the store costs more to rent and run meaning there are only a small amount of discounts the store is able to give. Pandora Pandora is a multinational company using a multiple store which is usually located in out of town areas. Because of the area where they are placed they have a long travel time making the easiest travel option the car however you can travel to them on public transport but many involve changes and larger fares. However due to the travel costs the areas slightly reduce store costs and also allow free parking. This means that although travel time and cost is high it holds more appeal due to the lower prices and free parking. Best One Newsagents Best One Newsagents is a franchised business that is based in local  locations. The areas that these stores are in are specifically placed in accordance to the surrounding area. They will be in an area where there are many houses surrounding them so that customers have east when going to the store. Due to the fact of them being a local store they are smaller than others and are able to sell items at cheaper prices. This appeals to the customers so that they can get bits they need without going to supermarkets and paying a higher price. eBay eBay is an online only auction site where people are able to sell unwanted items securely. This means they can sell items that people are looking for E.G a new iPad Air would usually be sold at retail price for  £399 but on eBay a new but used one could be sold at up to a 90% discount and that could be a set price or they could use the auction and consumers could bid to see who will be the one to purchase the item. As this is a selling site you will need to receive the money and many use PayPal as it is a secure way to pay the money however you can just pay cash if you are collecting the item.

Gates of Fire Essay Example for Free

Gates of Fire Essay Why I chose this book: I have no particular reason why I chose this book. While searching through the commandant’s new reading list, the title of the book stood out to me. It did not seam like a boring documentary or and endless biography that goes on and on but rather an interesting read that would keep me interested. When I went to go check it out from training I read the summary on the back of the book and was immediately intrigued about the storyline. I like the adventure and thrill of the Spartans as well as reading about war battles. Give a brief description about this book: This book is about a legendary Battle of Thermopylae and the Spartan culture. In 480 BC the Persian Empire marched with a force of two million men against Greece. In Greeces defense a small army of 2,500 Greek soldiers marched out in an attempt to slow the Persian advance. 300 Spartans were among this squadron, willing to fight to the death for their homeland. The two armies crashed at the narrow pass of Thermopylae. For six days the small force held off the entire Persian army, inflicting an estimated 20,000 casualties on the enemy. On the seventh day the main Greek force withdrew. The remaining Spartan force and a small number of Thespians stayed giving their comrades time for escape. The residual Greek forces fought heroically to the death. The slowed Persian advance gave Greek forces added time to muster men and eventually repel the invasion. The author depicts the story from a Spartan soldiers squire (armor bearer) point of view. The armor bearer, Xeo, tells his life story from his youth as an outcast to his acceptation into the Spartan military. Through the eyes of Xeo, the author tells of an armor bearers duties, soldiers thoughts and attitudes, Spartas military training, and Spartas military based culture. While he tells that Sparta is a cruel and brutal military society he also tells of the beauty and love that the civilization also possesses. Tactical lessons learned from this book: Some of the tactical leassons I learned from this book come from the battle at Thermopylae. Some of the tactics that interestead me, even back in those days, is when the Spartan army first arived at Themopylae. They scouted the area to see it they could possibly be flanked by the opposing army. They rounded up all of the random people that were not part of the battle so that their opposition could not use them for land navigation. The Spartans even burnned all the fields of crops so that their foe could not use the crops for rations. It is clear to me that fighting a battle is not all about who is the better fighter. I learned that witts and logistics are key elements for victory. Leadership lessons learned from this book: One of the leadership lessons that could be learned from this book involves courage. On multiple occasions in the book the leadership tries to instill in their men the philosophy that training for war has little to do with strengthening the war fighter physically but rather to toughen the mind. Polynikes also had the men realize that any army can win a battle with its legs still under it, it is when all strength has fled and the men must produce victory on will alone. I learned that if I want my Marines to be the best, I have to expect the best as well as adopt this mentality so that I may lead by example. How can the lessons learned be used today: The spartans trained to achieve victory while face whith constant adversity. Today the younger generation has adopted the attitude of, if it can’t be done with a reassonable amount of effort, then it can’t be done and they give up. We as leaders can learn from the spartans will to push through anything against all odds. So, by pushing our Marines until they give up and then pushing them more with expectaions of exelence can be a useful tool in teaching our Marines that they can jump over the wall instead of running into it. I would or would not recommend this book to my peers, and why: The author gives interesting facts about Spartan culture, its soldiers, attitudes of religion, and gripping battle scenes. The novel is extremely entertaining and gives a fascinating insight into courage, discipline, love, and war. Based on all of these reason I would recommend this book to anyone who enjoys reading of history or war.

Role of Cognitive Therapy in Reducing Human Error

Role of Cognitive Therapy in Reducing Human Error Table of Contents (Jump to) Introduction Cognitive Therapy and Human Error Automatic Subsystem Attentional Subsystem Conclusion Bibliography Q: As a Cognitive psychologist, how could you help reduce human error either at work, on the roads, or at home? Word Count: 1819  ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­_____________________________________________________________________ 1. Introduction Human error is evident is all areas of human involvement, and may differ vastly in terms of the seriousness of the outcome. A typing error, for example, is easily corrected with no harm to anyone; however, an error in a medical procedure may have more damaging consequences for both the patient and the medical practitioner. Reason (2000) identifies two main approaches to human error namely the system approach and the person approaches. The system approach maintains that human error is inevitable, but reviews it as a consequence of larger, systemic problems. The person approach, which is largely the more popular, views error as, arising primarily from aberrant mental processes such as forgetfulness, inattention, poor motivation, carelessness, negligence, and recklessness (Reason, 2000: 768). In his essay, Reason (2000) suggests that there be a movement toward a system approach to human error, arguing that the human condition is not changeable, yet the conditions under which they work a re. The following essay will consider the role of cognitive therapy in reducing human error. Focusing on two main areas of research: cognition and behaviour. This will be followed by a conclusion of findings. 2. Cognitive Therapy and Human Error Aaron Beck is the founder of Cognitive Therapy (CT) and in this approach he proposes that our feelings, thoughts and behaviours are all interlinked, and that thought and behaviour changes, will result in feelings being transformed (Sanders Wills, 2006). Therefore, Cognitive Therapists make use of behavioural experiments and target cognitions in order to bring about cognitive, emotional and behavioural strategies. This understanding of CT and the methods used by Cognitive Therapists becomes increasingly relevant to the theory of human error when considered in the backdrop of The Emerging Model of Cognitions presented by Panko (1997). The Emerging Model of Cognitions (Panko, 1997) highlights the interplay between three subsystems, namely: the automatic subsystem, the attentional subsystem and the environment, and each of these systems impact on the cultivation and execution of a plan. The automatic subsystem includes schemata (sets of information and response patterns) that are below the level of consciousness. These schemata are triggered by a specific stimulus, which elicits a patterned response. Panko (1997) gives the example of speech, which involves a number of complex processes, or schemata, which we are not conscious of, but results in the patterned response of speech. Error will sometimes occur when a situation arises for which there is no existing patterned response (schemata). In such a situation, a schema that has been activated in a similar situation is then activated, resulting in occasional error. The second subsystem described by Panko (1997) is the attentional subsystem. This subsystem involves log ical and attentional thought, which, like the automatic subsystem, is also built on schematic organisation. According to Panko (1997) error rooted in the attentional subsystem can be largely attributed to lay theories. This researcher explains that, Even after people receive training in specific areas, such as physics, they often revert to lay theories afterward†¦lay theories are schemata that we have developed over many years. They are very likely to produce errors when we model situations (Planko, 1997: ¶16). Finally, the environment is the third subsystem indicated by Planko (1997). According to this researcher, the planning and execution of an action is in constant play with the environment. Plans are fed back to the environment, and are then adjusted accordingly. When the environment is a buzz of information and stimulus, thus confusing the schema, unexpected results can occur. From this model, the following causes of human error can be identified. Firstly, disruption to the automatic subsystem, as a result of the ill matching of schema to an unknown situation. Secondly, disruption to the attentional subsystem, by reverting to lay theories, and finally, the environmental impact, where it is understood as influencing the formation of schema. This model brings to the forefront the idea that, to a large degree, human error can be understood as being rooted in cognitive and behavioral mishaps. Cognitive therapy may be employed to help reduce these errors by tackling the automatic and attentional subsystems presented in the model. 2.1 Automatic Subsystem Cognitive Therapy explains the working of schema, defining it as a relatively enduring, deep cognitive structure that organizes the principles of giving appraisal and meaning to experiences, especially in relation to rules of living, with regards to self, others and the world (Sanders Wills, 2006: 147). An event schema, or cognitive script, involves processes and practices of approach tasks and problems. These ways of processing are behaviorally oriented and triggered by certain stimulus (Scholl, 2002). Such schema are constructed either directly, through repeated a process a number of times, or indirectly through movies, role models and stories (Scholl, 2002). Scholl (2002:  ¶4) identifies two distinct methods of data processing. Data-driven or stimulus-driven processing occurs when no schema exist form which to process information. The individual examines all information and proceeds through a careful decision making process. Schema-driven processing occurs when an individual responds to a stimulus (decision making or problem solving situation) by evoking a programmed response or behavior script (schema). This is done without extensive data collection or analysis. According to Scholl (2002) error is more likely to occur when an individual has a rigid schema. In this instance, an individual, despite the in information provided, uses the same schema to respond to similar situations and no longer makes a distinction between them. The results in inaccurate decision making and errors occur. Such error can be seen to occur, for example, on the road. An individual with a rigid schema may have his or her problem solving diminished when confronted by a faulty traffic light. Instead of considering the unique information, he or she responds as if it where a normal functioning light, resulting in an accident. Cognitive therapy, by means of schema therapy and challenging core beliefs attempts to loosen and change some of the enduring schema. 2.2 Attentional Subsystem As previously described, disruption to the attentional subsystem occurs when a person reverts their attention to a particular thought. From this it can be understood that, despite having a variety of options available, thinking because inflexible and rigid. A person may even be said to have become fixated. One such lay theory may be seen in the form of excessive worry. Worry is a type of negative intrusive thought, which tends to distract the worrier from the task at hand. For example, a person new to their job, having undergone and successfully completed the necessary training, may become anxious on starting their job. This would be further compounded by such worrisome thoughts of, I am not good enough, I know that I will make a mistake, when I make a mistake I will be fired. This talk is the lay theory they have about themselves and their competence. This negative self-talk interferes with the brain processes necessary for completing the task, and error occurs. Shearer and Gordon ( 2006) give reference to a number of cognitive behavioral strategies that can be employed for the reduction of worry, including repeatedly challenging the worry process, experiments of behavioral exposure and mindfulness based meditation. Another approach offered by cognitive therapy for confronting such patterns of thought is that of Attentional Training. Wells and Papageorgiou are the founders of Attentional Training and describe it as a way of decreasing the fixed focus (which is typically self-focus) and allow for more flexibility in thought (Sanders and Wills, 2006). Harvey, Watkins, Mansell, and Shafran (2004: 67) describe the process involved in Attentional Training: The therapy is divided into several stages: The therapist first provides a clear rationale for why reducing or interrupting self-focused processing may aid recovery. The patient is asked to fixate on a visual stimulus (e.g. a mark on the wall) and then to focus attention for several moments on each of a series of different sounds (therapists voice, tapping, clock). The patient is instructed to exclusively focus on each sound alone. The patient shifts their attention rapidly between the sets of sounds. The patient attends simultaneously to all of the sounds, trying to be aware of as many sounds as possible. Through this process a person preoccupied by worrisome thoughts, learns to attend to more than one stimulus, and is thus able to shift there attention when these thoughts arise. Conclusion This essay explored and discussed the phenomenon of human error, the processes involved in human error and the possible negative outcomes when human error occurs. This included a range of problem outcomes, from relatively harmless to far more damaging ones. Two prominent theories of human error where identified, namely the system and person approaches. Working from the person approach, The Emerging Model of Cognition provided a framework from which to consider the role of cognitions in human error. This model highlighted the role of cognitive therapy in helping to reduce human error. Schema Therapy was identified as an effective method for helping to make rigid schema more flexible, thereby freeing the individual to be able to consider a larger variety of options before acting. Attentional Training was identified as a method for approaching unconscious schema in the attentional subsystem. This approach in cognitive therapy trains the individual to attend to more than one stimulus. Th is allows the individual to be less distracted by intrusive thoughts, such as worry, and attend to the task at hand. Cognitive therapy is an increasingly popular option for psychological therapy. Interventions using this approach have shown long lasting effects, and reduce the possibility of relapse. Cognitive therapy has been developed for a large range of problems from panic and anxiety disorders to eating problems and hallucinations. It is also applied in a range of settings from mental health to life coaching (Sanders Wills, 2006). This essay has pointed to two ways in which cognitive therapy can be useful in helping reduce the occurrence of human error. Bibliography Harvey, A., Watkins, E., Mansell, W., Shafran, R. (2004). Cognitive Behavioural Processes Across Psychological Disorders: A transdiagnostic approach to research and treatment. Oxford University Press. Panko, R.R. (1997). Theories of Human Error. Retrieved on March 1st, 2007, from  http://panko.cba.hawaii.edu/HumanErr/Theory.htm. Reason, J. (2000). Human error: Models and management. British Medical Journal,  320, 768-770. Sanders, D., Wills, F. (2006). Cognitive Therapy: An introduction. London: Sage. Scholl, R.W. (2002). Social Cognition and Cognitive Schema. Retrieved on May 3, 2007, from http://www.uri.edu/research/lrc/scholl/Notes/Cognitive_Schema.htm. Shearer, S, Gordon, L. (2006). The patient with excessive worry. American Family Physician, 73, 1045-1056.

An Analysis of Thomas Hardys The Mayor of Casterbridge Essay -- essay

An Analysis of The Mayor of Casterbridge The plot of The Mayor of Casterbridge, by Thomas Hardy, can often be confusing and difficult to follow. The pages of this novel are filled with sex, scandal, and alcohol, but it provides for a very interesting and unique story. It all begins one day in the large Wessex village of Weydon-Priors. Michael Henchard, a young hay-trusser looking for work, enters the village with his wife and infant daughter. What follows next, is certainly a little out of the ordinary, and this book provides and interesting plot, that is sure to brighten up any boring day. Michael Henchard, looking for something to drink, enters into a tent where an old woman is selling furmity, a liquid pudding made of boiled wheat, eggs, sugar, and spices. Henchard consumes too many bowls of furmity spiked with rum. Feeling trapped by his marriage and under the influence, Henchard threatens to auction his family. The auction begins as a kind of cruel joke, but Susan Henchard in anger retaliates by leaving with a sailor who makes the highest bid. Henchard regrets his decision the next day, but he is unable to find his family. Exactly eighteen years pass. Susan and her daughter Elizabeth-Jane come back to the fair, seeking news about Henchard. The sailor has been lost at sea, and Susan is returning to her "rightful" husband. At the infamous furmity tent, they learn Henchard has moved to Casterbridge, where he has become a prosperous grain merchant and even mayor. When Henchard learns that his family has returned, he is determined to right his old wrong. He devises a plan for courting and marrying Susan again, and for adopting her daughter. A young Scotsman named Donald Farfrae enters Casterbridge on the same day as Susan and Elizabeth-Jane. Henchard takes an instant liking to the total stranger and convinces Farfrae to stay on in Casterbridge as his right-hand man. Henchard even tells Farfrae the two greatest secrets of his life: the sale of his wife and the affair he has had with a Jersey woman, Lucetta. Henchard is confused as to how to make good on his bad acts. Henchard remarries Susan, who dies soon afterward, leaving behind a letter to be opened on Elizabeth-Jane's wedding day. Henchard read... ... Henchard appears at Elizabeth-Jane and Farfrae's wedding to deliver a present. Elizabeth-Jane spurns him, and Henchard sees that Newson has taken over as father of the bride--a role Henchard can never play. He leaves Casterbridge broken-hearted. A few days later, Elizabeth-Jane discovers Henchard's present, a bird in a cage. The unattended bird has died of starvation. Touched, she and Farfrae go in search of Henchard. Too late, they learn he has just died in the hovel where he had been living with the humblest of his former employees. The young couple read Henchard's pitiful will, in which Henchard asks that no one remember him. As one can see, to often scandal can end in tragedy, as in the case of poor Michael Henchard. He lived a risky life, and paid for his mistakes in the end. The Mayor of Casterbridge proves to be an interesting novel, that provides everything modern day critics hope to keep out of the hands of children. The book proved to be at times, quite exegesis, but the plot is presented well, and the settings described beautifully. Thomas Hardy creates a masterpiece in describing the rise and fall of one Michael Henchard.

Teen Pregnancy :: Teenage Mothers

Over the past few years teenage pregnancy rates have grown substantially. More than one million teenagers will become pregnant this year in Canada, and the number is growing. Many socioeconomic factors influence pregnancy rates, such as; different races, different religions, financial status, education and family background. Another influence is the sexual education children are receiving or not receiving at school and at home. While the problem of teenage pregnancy is acknowledged, solutions are coming slowly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some parents feel that pregnancy is a result of the lack of sex education courses taught in schools, while others feel that these courses end up encouraging teenagers to become sexually active. Studies have been done to find out just how important sex education courses are, and what effect they have on pregnancy rates. 'The amount of sex education they receive is not as important a factor, according to a new study.'; (Fewer girls get pregnant when involved in community, E8) Toronto Sun, 1998) Other sources say:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  'Sex education courses, advocated to prevent teen pregnancy but denounced as encouraged sexual interest, appear to have little or no effect on teens' sexual activity. Such courses also have no noticeable effect on contraceptive use and pregnancy rates among teenagers. It was found that while students do learn about sex and contraception, they do not appear to alter their behavior.'; (Okie, 1996) The courses that are offered in schools have proven not to have any influence on the teenage pregnancy rates. The reason for this may be that the courses are just not being taught effectively or are targeting the wrong age group:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  'Two major goals of the school sex education programs are to reduce the incidence of unwarranted pregnancy as well as the rates of AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. However, to be effective, programs must begin early. If we wait until an age when most adolescents are sexually active, we might have to combat an acquired behavioral pattern of ineffective STD/pregnancy prevention behavior. Some statistics found that in the 1984 survey of school superintendents found that children do not all seem to know what we expect them to know.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was found that 50% of schools offered a family life education program. Whereas 87% of urban districts had a program, only 25% of rural districts had a program. Canadian school children ages 9, 12 and 15 showed a considerable lack of sexual education. Only 35% of grade 7 students knew that is was possible for a

the best :: essays research papers

- Navigate Here - Context Plot Overview Characters Character Analysis Themes --- The Custom-House Chapters I and II Chapters III and IV Chapters V and VI Chapters VII and VIII Chapters IX and X Chapters XI and XII Chapters XIII and XIV Chapters XV and XVI Chapters XVII and XVIII Chapters XIX and XX Chapters XXI and XXII Chapters XXIII and XXIV --- Quotations Key Facts Study Quiz Further Reading Edition 11 Chapters IX–X (Read: Chapter IX Â · Chapter X) Summary Chapter IX: The Leech By renaming himself upon his arrival in Boston, Chillingworth has hidden his past from everyone except Hester, whom he has sworn to secrecy. He incorporates himself into society in the role of a doctor, and since the townsfolk have very little access to good medical care, he is welcomed and valued. In addition to his training in European science, he also has some knowledge of "native" or "natural" remedies, because he was captured by Native Americans and lived with them for a time. The town sometimes refers to the doctor colloquially as a "leech," which was a common epithet for physicians at the time. The name derives from the practice of using leeches to drain blood from their patients, which used to be regarded as a curative process. Much to the community's concern, Dimmesdale has been suffering from severe health problems. He appears to be wasting away, and he frequently clutches at his chest as though his heart pains him. Because Dimmesdale refuses to marry any of the young women who have devoted themselves to him, Chillingworth urges the town leadership to insist that Dimmesdale allow the doctor to live with him. In this way, Chillingworth may have a chance to diagnose and cure the younger man. The two men take rooms next to the cemetery in a widow's home, which gives them an opportunity for the contemplation of sin and death. The minister's room is hung with tapestries depicting biblical scenes of adultery and its punishment, while Chillingworth's room contains a laboratory that is sophisticated for its time. The townspeople were initially grateful for Chillingworth's presence and deemed his arrival a divine miracle designed to help Dimmesdale. As time has passed, however, rumors have spread concerning Chillingworth's personal history. Even more ominously, the man's face has begun to take on a look of evil. A majority of the townspeople begin to suspect that Chillingworth is the Devil, come to wage battle for Dimmesdale's soul.

Economic control Essay

Traditionally the reasons of the rules and regulations were to control human relations in an effort to make the behaviors of other individuals known (Pennell, pp3). rules are also employed to provide other purposes, these includes punishing offenders, providing social economic control, banishing private retribution, deterring criminal acts and reflecting public opinions (Pennell, pp3). Conventionally prevention of crime was intended provide advice on defensive behaviors and security. On the other hand laws are supposed to be malleable and should serve as a tool of social engineering (Pennell, pp4). They are supposed to be transformed with arrival of new thoughts and societal changes. The human rights and needs of victims of crime are essential aspects of criminal justice systems, especially currently, as the issues of victims have emerged since 1970s. Since 1970s, legal and emotional reactions of the nation have changed dramatically and currently more attention is being paid on restorative justice. There are many activities that are involved in restorative justice (Pennell, pp6). In order to give an insight of the various forms that restorative justice is taking and the activities that are involved this paper will focus on practices, origin context and limitations of restorative justice (Pennell, pp6). Victims Rights The current legal codes in federal government evolved from the conventional codes and attempts to define and deal with criminal behaviors. The aim of the codes is to focus on the deviant behaviors of the criminals and they rarely focus on the victims and their needs. The primary focus of the law is to deter the criminal activities (Aldana-Pindell, pp45). Several decades ago within the federal government when reconciliation for victim offenders was being set restorative justice did not exist within the criminal justice system (Brown & Bunnell, pp87). Restorative justice has evolved currently within the criminal justice system in recent years following philosophical writings of van ness and others. Various debates which have been held have facilitated the emergence of processes within the restorative justice such as impact panels, conferences, sentencing circle etc (Aldana-Pindell, pp45). Since 1970s several practices and programs have assisted to develop the restorative justice moments. Early practices for restorative justice were focusing on the moderated meetings involving the offenders and the victims (Aldana-Pindell, pp46). As time went by the meetings were expanded and included friends and family members from the two parties. The meetings also included professionals and other individuals who had access of public resources. In recent years the system has paid much attention on the participation and involvement of members of the community (Normandeau, pp34). In 1970s some practitioners and scholars believed that offenders are victims of social neglect, poor societies and racial, ethnic and gender discrimination. As a result the advocates of restorative justice focused to change the conditions in the prison, reduce incarceration use and eliminate prison and jails as institutions (Normandeau, pp34). In this regard there are some individuals who were seeking to make a caring society instead of prisons and jails that would address the issues of victimizers and victims (Brown & Bunnell, pp92). The activists of caring communities brought the issue of interests of the victims in the criminal justice system in a progressive manner rather than focusing on the right of the victims (Meister, pp54). In 1970s and 1980s the population of people in the prisons in United States was becoming progressively overcrowded and contributed to the use and popularity of intermediary sanctions (Aldana-Pindell, pp47). However, during this time restorative justice and mediation of victim offenders were not common within the criminal justice systems as alternatives. The establishment of boards of societal justice and centers for neighborhood justice in the federal government reflected their wishing to achieve more justice and this was characterized by public participation and casualness (Aldana-Pindell, pp49). These were new forms of resolution of conflicts in the late 1970s and they showed a developing disenchantment which involved trial procedures of adjudication and finding facts in accordance to adherence to strict legal principles. On the other hand the systems in resolution of conflicts placed much importance on negotiation, agreements between the disputants and placed less importance on the role of legal professionals (Aldana-Pindell, pp49). In mid 1970s reconciliation programs in the United States were introduced for victim offenders. These programs were based on the principles of Mennonite that focuses on dialogue and exchange (Marshall, pp20). Reconciliation programs involved offenders and crime victims meetings after being sentenced and included impartial third party. Reconciliation programs for offenders and victims aimed at restoring good relationship that is supposed to exist between the parties. The proponents of these programs were focusing to establish a good working relationship and use of principles of religious institutions and also as an option to incarceration (Marshall, pp21). In the rate 1970s advocates and the victims increasingly focused on mediation rather than reconciliation programs for offenders and victims’ interactions. However, the model of the mediation program was similar to models of reconciliation program, although additional individuals affected by the differences would be involved in the meeting, especially when addressing serious crimes (Meister, pp57). Mediation programs for offenders and victims were developed in western part of Europe, Scandinavia and England in the end of 1970s and early 1980s, and were use primarily to handle justice cases for the youths. Since 1980s the programs have shown a significant growth in the United States and other nations (Marshall, pp22). Progressive voices and conservatives suggest that victims of crimes do not have the voice in the criminal justice system. In late 1970s and early 1980s activists of feminists and social scholars of legal doctrines paid more attention on making courts and law enforcement officers to be accountable to children and women who may be physically or sexually abused (Marshall, pp22). The groups that advocated for victims right focused on compensation for crime in the processes of courts, using formal voice and on safety of the society. In early 1980s Reagan organization released a report of task force on victims of crimes that facilitated the development of groups that advocated for the rights of the victims. Since 1990s there is a tremendous growth of alliances between groups that focuses on the reforms of criminal justice and victim support. This tremendous growth has been as a result of realizing the common interests among the offenders and victims based groups (Anwander, pp71). In 1980s New Zealand government started reassessing Waitangi treaty focusing on the implications of the relationship between the whites i. e. Pakeha and indigenous people the Maori. In 1986 a report that was prepared by ministers recommended for structural changes in the practices and policies of the government towards the indigenous people (Marshall, pp24). In 1989 the administration had great structural changes in the way matters regarding family welfare and justice for the youths was handled. Before introduction of these changes indigenous people were overrepresented in prisons and jails and decision making processes were dominated by the whites (Meister, pp58). These structural changes employed in youth justice can be used in various juvenile offenses, but mostly they are used in serious cases and minor cases solved trough diversions of police. Family welfare and youth justice programs are different from offenders and victim reconciliation and mediation programs since they involve more community members in the discussion of the offense, pay more attention on participation of the family and recognize more victimized individuals. Family welfare and youth justice programs also reduce the intervention of the state and changes the roles of professionals in problem solving (Marshall, pp26). Youth justice and family welfare programs were introduced first in Australia in late 1991 and formed part of law enforcement operations that focused on one jurisdiction. Conferences run by the police were also introduced in the capital city of Australia and later on the northern states (Meister, pp59). In late 1993 and early 1994, conferences for handling juvenile cases were introduced in the southern and western part of Australia and they were involving non professional police to run the conference. In Queensland and south wale conferences to handle juvenile cases, have been recently introduced and they are mostly employed in Queensland schools (Meister, pp59). Circles of sentencing were established in Canada in 1980s, and were the fist groups of the nation to respond to offenders (Marshall, pp26). The aim and objectives of circles of sentencing are resolution of conflicts, restoring harmony and order, and healing of offenders, victims and family (Anwander, pp73). Circles of sentencing involves processes of consensus and includes all the victims of crimes and families of the victims, their next of kin, and community members in order to respond to the behavior and formulate sanctions that addresses all the needs of those involved. Circles of sentencing are currently being used in United States and in Canada by non indigenous groups that include blacks in Minnesota. Since 1980s, there are other practices which have emerged and use the principles of restorative justice (Marshall, pp27). Compensation boards in Vermont involve the members of the community and design penalties for offenders of juvenile. These penalties involve service of the community and rarely involve offender and victim mediation. The meetings do not involve the victims (Anwander, pp76). Panels of victim impact have also been introduced by mothers and focuses on drunk driving. The panels give a room for the victims and the members of the family to give their suggestions about the impact of driving when drunkard to the offenders who have been ordered by the court to attend. However, these panels for victims are different from most of the processes of restorative justice, since they do not employ voluntary attendance (Marshall, pp29). On the other hand they have an important element of bringing contact of offenders and victims in the process, which lacks in traditional proceedings of criminal justice. These panels are employed extensively across the United States. On the other hand research and theories have contributed to the development of restorative justice. In 1970s scholars of social and legal doctrines developed several theories focusing on formal and informal justice. Theoretical and empirical studies of formal and indformal justice which have been conducted in industrialized countries and in less developed countries suggest that, it took less one decade to change optimism for pessimism. With emergence of theories and research disillusionment had already set in by 1990s (Marshall, pp30). In late 1970s and early 1980s there were arguments from the criminologists in Netherlands, Norway and from elsewhere to abolish prisons. During this time the activists paid more attention on decarceration and alternatives to jails and prisons. However, currently there are few individuals who would argue for complete abolition of prisons although few people argue for their minimal use (Marshall, pp31). In 1996 there was an international conference to address penal abolition held in New Zealand and supported resolutions and discussions to facilitate restorative justice. Scholars have also attempted to focus on the merits of informal methods that can be applied in social set ups to regulate order in the society (Marshall, pp31). This involves reintegrative shaming in response to a crime that may be integrative and not stigmatizing. These ideas have been employed in conferencing models such as in wagga, in Australia. Before the wagga conference these ideas were not included in youth justice and family welfare programs and they did not form part of many conference held across the globe. The united states are currently employing the wagga model, although there are some arguments on the issue of shame and whether it should be the central issue in processes of conferencing (Marshall, pp32).

Bullying Essay

Bullying Frightened, Weak, Sad, Unwanted. You end up not wanting to go anywhere, because you are afraid of getting picked on. You get so fed up with everything, you start harming yourself. You begin cutting yourself or even worse? You end up killing yourself. Hi today, I’m going to talk to you about bullying and what the down sizes of bullying is. Some might wonder, who are the bully’s and why do people bully others. So as you read this essay, think about those questions. And ask yourself. If you’ve ever been bullied or have you been the bully.How did you feel? Did you feel powerless and think that it wasn’t fare that this was happening to you. Or that you didn’t have anyone to talk to. Well you do and no one should be making you feel like this. Bulling has to stop, it shouldn’t be going to the extent that people feel like they’re nothing and end up committing suicide. Having said that, this essay will show you the different types of b ullying, the consequences of bullying and how to stop bullying. Many people think that bullying is just kicking and punching a person.Those people are right, what they don’t know is that there are other forms of bullying. To be exact there are six different types of bullying; physical bullying, cyber bullying, verbal bullying, indirect bullying, intimidation, and social alienation. The form of bullying that occurs more is cyber bullying. In Canada, 42% of kids have been bullied while online. One in four has had it happen more than once. 35% of kids have been threatened online. Nearly one in five have had it happen more than once. 1% of kids have received mean or threatening e-mails or other messages. 58% of kids admit someone has said mean or hurtful things to them online. More than four out of ten say it has happened more than once. 58% have not told their parents or an adult about something mean or hurtful that happened to them online. Both boys and girls can be bullies. Bo ys tend to bully physically, while girls generally use more indirect approaches, such as gossiping about classmates or isolating them by excluding them from activities or groups.Boys are usually bullied by other boys, whereas girls are bullied by both girls and boys. Some of the consequences of being bullied are self-harm, depression, low self-esteem, loneliness and etc†¦ Most people cannot deal with the pressure of being bullied. So they decide to commit suicide, for example â€Å"Carl Joseph Walker-Hoover, hung himself Monday, April 9, 2009 after enduring bullying at school, including daily taunts of being gay. His suicide was at least the fourth suicide of a middle-school aged child linked to bullying in the year of 2009†.Bullying is never acceptable. It should be considered just â€Å"part of growing up† Research and experience consistently shows involved, their families and peers, and the community around them. I’ve witnessed someone self-harming thems elves do to being bullied, it looked like they hit rock bottom and all the person could say is that â€Å"there is no point in living now, no one likes me life is not a thing I enjoy†. I felt like that wasn’t fair to them and that no one should have to go through what they did. But they overcome that and were feeling better.They started hanging out with really friends that cared about them and just ignored what others thought about them because they don’t have to please other, just themselves. How to stop bulling? Whether or not you have been bullied, there are things you can do to stop bullying. The first thing you should do is to tell a teacher or other trusted adult at your school if bullying happens to you or someone at your school. But bullying doesn’t always happen at school, it can happen after school or even at home.So in that situation, tell an adult that will do something about it or even a police officer. This may seem like tattling, but itâ₠¬â„¢s not. The victim of a bully is someone you can protect. By telling someone at school about bullying, you are protecting the victim the same as if you stood up to a bully yourself. After telling an adult, you should go to a councillor to talk about your problem. If you don’t feel comfortable talking to the councillor. Try talking to a friend or someone you trust, that will listen to you and try to help you. It isn’t good to keep everything to yourself.You have to get everything out that isn’t healthy for you. Or else it will haunt you and make you feel alone. So in my opinion just talk about your problem even if it’s with your cat or dog (which ever). However being a witness of bullying can be just as bad as being the bullying. As long as you witness bullying and don’t try to stop it. That means, that you’re encouraging the bully because he/she is getting the attention they want. So remember that for the next time you witness someone bei ng bullying and don’t do anything to stop it. Who are bullies?Bullies are very often people who have been bullied or abused themselves. Sometimes they are experiencing life situations they cannot cope with, that leave them feeling helpless and out of control. They may have poor social skills, do not fit in, and cannot meet the expectations of their family, school, or bosses. They bully to, be successful, to control someone else, or to get some relief from their own feelings of powerlessness. Bullies bully because they might be picked on by someone else so they pick on you, so that they think that they are strong.They might not have any friends. They may not know how to feel happy, or something is going on with their family, that is bothering them so they decide to take out their frustration on other people. I hope you take this essay and absorb everything I’ve said. And remember one person might not be able to put a stop to bullying. But we as a group can sure try. If it doesn’t work, then we can try harder. And never give up. Resources: http://www. dosomething. org/tipsandtools/11-facts-about-cyber-bullying http://www. glsen. org/walker. html Bullying Essay Bullying Frightened, Weak, Sad, Unwanted. You end up not wanting to go anywhere, because you are afraid of getting picked on. You get so fed up with everything, you start harming yourself. You begin cutting yourself or even worse? You end up killing yourself. Hi today, I’m going to talk to you about bullying and what the down sizes of bullying is. Some might wonder, who are the bully’s and why do people bully others. So as you read this essay, think about those questions. And ask yourself. If you’ve ever been bullied or have you been the bully.How did you feel? Did you feel powerless and think that it wasn’t fare that this was happening to you. Or that you didn’t have anyone to talk to. Well you do and no one should be making you feel like this. Bulling has to stop, it shouldn’t be going to the extent that people feel like they’re nothing and end up committing suicide. Having said that, this essay will show you the different types of b ullying, the consequences of bullying and how to stop bullying. Many people think that bullying is just kicking and punching a person.Those people are right, what they don’t know is that there are other forms of bullying. To be exact there are six different types of bullying; physical bullying, cyber bullying, verbal bullying, indirect bullying, intimidation, and social alienation. The form of bullying that occurs more is cyber bullying. In Canada, 42% of kids have been bullied while online. One in four has had it happen more than once. 35% of kids have been threatened online. Nearly one in five have had it happen more than once. 1% of kids have received mean or threatening e-mails or other messages. 58% of kids admit someone has said mean or hurtful things to them online. More than four out of ten say it has happened more than once. 58% have not told their parents or an adult about something mean or hurtful that happened to them online. Both boys and girls can be bullies. Bo ys tend to bully physically, while girls generally use more indirect approaches, such as gossiping about classmates or isolating them by excluding them from activities or groups.Boys are usually bullied by other boys, whereas girls are bullied by both girls and boys. Some of the consequences of being bullied are self-harm, depression, low self-esteem, loneliness and etc†¦ Most people cannot deal with the pressure of being bullied. So they decide to commit suicide, for example â€Å"Carl Joseph Walker-Hoover, hung himself Monday, April 9, 2009 after enduring bullying at school, including daily taunts of being gay. His suicide was at least the fourth suicide of a middle-school aged child linked to bullying in the year of 2009†.Bullying is never acceptable. It should be considered just â€Å"part of growing up† Research and experience consistently shows involved, their families and peers, and the community around them. I’ve witnessed someone self-harming thems elves do to being bullied, it looked like they hit rock bottom and all the person could say is that â€Å"there is no point in living now, no one likes me life is not a thing I enjoy†. I felt like that wasn’t fair to them and that no one should have to go through what they did. But they overcome that and were feeling better.They started hanging out with really friends that cared about them and just ignored what others thought about them because they don’t have to please other, just themselves. How to stop bulling? Whether or not you have been bullied, there are things you can do to stop bullying. The first thing you should do is to tell a teacher or other trusted adult at your school if bullying happens to you or someone at your school. But bullying doesn’t always happen at school, it can happen after school or even at home.So in that situation, tell an adult that will do something about it or even a police officer. This may seem like tattling, but itâ₠¬â„¢s not. The victim of a bully is someone you can protect. By telling someone at school about bullying, you are protecting the victim the same as if you stood up to a bully yourself. After telling an adult, you should go to a councillor to talk about your problem. If you don’t feel comfortable talking to the councillor. Try talking to a friend or someone you trust, that will listen to you and try to help you. It isn’t good to keep everything to yourself.You have to get everything out that isn’t healthy for you. Or else it will haunt you and make you feel alone. So in my opinion just talk about your problem even if it’s with your cat or dog (which ever). However being a witness of bullying can be just as bad as being the bullying. As long as you witness bullying and don’t try to stop it. That means, that you’re encouraging the bully because he/she is getting the attention they want. So remember that for the next time you witness someone bei ng bullying and don’t do anything to stop it. Who are bullies?Bullies are very often people who have been bullied or abused themselves. Sometimes they are experiencing life situations they cannot cope with, that leave them feeling helpless and out of control. They may have poor social skills, do not fit in, and cannot meet the expectations of their family, school, or bosses. They bully to, be successful, to control someone else, or to get some relief from their own feelings of powerlessness. Bullies bully because they might be picked on by someone else so they pick on you, so that they think that they are strong.They might not have any friends. They may not know how to feel happy, or something is going on with their family, that is bothering them so they decide to take out their frustration on other people. I hope you take this essay and absorb everything I’ve said. And remember one person might not be able to put a stop to bullying. But we as a group can sure try. If it doesn’t work, then we can try harder. And never give up. Resources: http://www. dosomething. org/tipsandtools/11-facts-about-cyber-bullying http://www. glsen. org/walker. html

Computer Hardware Essay

I. LECTURE OVERVIEW Foundation Concepts: Computer Hardware, reviews trends and developments in microcomputer, midrange, and mainframe computer systems; basic computer system concepts; and the major types of technologies used in peripheral devices for computer input, output, and storage. Computer Systems – Major types of computer systems are summarized in Figure 13.2. A computer is a system of information processing components that perform input, processing, output, storage, and control functions. Its hardware components include input and output devices, a central processing unit (CPU), and primary and secondary storage devices. The major functions and hardware in a computer system are summarized in Figure 13.9 Microcomputer Systems – Microcomputers are used as personal computers, network computers, personal digital assistants, technical workstations, and information appliances. Like most computer systems today, microcomputers are interconnected in a variety of telecommunications networks. This typically includes local area networks, client/server networks, intranets and extranets, and the Internet. Other Computer Systems – Midrange computers are increasingly used as powerful network servers, and for many multiuser business data processing and scientific applications. Mainframe computers are larger and more powerful than most midsize computers. They are usually faster, have more memory capacity, and can support more network users and peripheral devices. They are designed to handle the information processing needs of large organizations with high volumes of transaction processing, or with complex computational problems. Supercomputers are a special category of extremely powerfu l mainframe computer systems designed for massive computational assignments. II. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Learning Objective †¢ Identify the major types, trends, and uses of microcomputer, midrange and mainframe computer systems. †¢ Outline the major technologies and uses of computer peripherals for input, output, and storage. †¢ Identify and give examples of the components and functions of a computer system. †¢ Identify the computer systems and peripherals you would acquire or recommend for a business of your choice, and explain the reasons for your selections. III. LECTURE NOTES Section 1: Computer Systems: End User and Enterprise Computing INTRODUCTION All computers are systems of input, processing, output, storage, and control components. Technology is evolving at a rapid pace, and new forms of input, output, processing, and storage devices continue to enter the market. Analyzing City of Richmond and Tim Beaty Builders We can learn a lot about innovative business uses of PDAs from this case. Take a few minutes to read it, and we will discuss it (See City of Richmond and Tim Beaty Builders in Section IX). TYPES OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS -[Figure 13.2] There are several major categories of computer systems with a variety of characteristics and capabilities. Thus, computer systems are typically classified as: †¢ Mainframe computers †¢ Midrange computers †¢ Microcomputers These categories are attempts to describe the relative computing power provided by different computing platforms or types of computers therefore, they are not precise classifications. Some experts predict the merging or disappearance of several computer categories. They feel that many midrange and mainframe systems have been made obsolete by the power and versatility of client/server networks of microcomputers and servers. Most recently, some  industry experts have predicted that the emergence of network computers and information appliances for applications on the Internet and corporate intranets will replace many personal computers, especially in large organisations and in the home computer market. MICROCOMPUTER SYSTEMS Microcomputers are the smallest but most important categories of computers systems for business people and consumers. They are also referred to as personal computers (or PCs). The computing power of current microcomputers exceeds that of the mainframe computers of previous generations at a fraction of their cost. They have become powerful-networked professional workstations for use by end users in business. Microcomputers  categorised by size 1. Handheld 2. Notebook 3. Laptop 4. Portable 5. Desktop 6. Floor-standing Microcomputers  categorised by use 1. Home 2. Personal 3. Professional 4. Workstation 5. Multi-user Systems Microcomputers  categorised by special purpose 1. Workstation Computers 2. Network Servers 3. Personal Digital Assistants Workstation Computers – some microcomputers are powerful workstation  computers (technical work stations) that support applications with heavy mathematical computing and graphics display demands such as computeraided design (CAD) in engineering, or investment and portfolio analysis in the securities industry. Network Servers – are usually more powerful microcomputers that co-ordinate telecommunications and resource  sharing in small local area networks (LANs), and Internet and intranet websites. This is the fastest growing microcomputer application category. Network Computers: †¢ Network Computers (NCs) are a major new microcomputer category designed primarily for use with the Internet and corporate intranets by clerical workers, operational employees, and knowledge workers with specialised or limited computing applications. In-between NCs and full-featured PCs are stripped-down PCs known as NetPCs or legacy-free PCs. NetPCs are designed for the Internet and a limited range of applications within a company. Examples are: Dell’s Webpc, Compaq’s IPaq, HP’s e-PC, and eMachine’s eOne. Network computers (also called thin clients) are low-cost, sealed, networked microcomputers with no or minimal disk storage. Users of network computers depend primarily on Internet and intranet servers for their operating system and web browser, Java-enabled application software, and data access and storage. Main attractions of network computers over full-featured PCs are their low cost to: †¢ Purchase †¢ Upgrade †¢ Maintenance †¢ Support Other benefits to businesses include: †¢ Ease of software distribution and licensing †¢ Computing platform standardisation †¢ Reduced end user support requirements †¢ Improved manageability through centralised management and enterprisewide control of computer network resources. Information Appliances The market is offering a number of gadgets and information appliances that offer users the capability to perform enable host of basic computational chores. Examples of some information appliances include: †¢ Personal Digital Assistants – (PDAs) are designed for convenient mobile communications and computing. PDAs use touch screens, pen-based handwriting recognition, or keyboards to help mobile workers send and receive E-mail, access the Web, and exchange information such as appointments, to-do lists, and sales contacts with their desktop PCs or web servers. †¢ Set-top boxes and video-game consoles that connect to home TV sets. These devices enable you to surf the Web or send and receive E-mail and watch TV programs or play video games at the same time. †¢ Wireless PDAs and cellular and PCS phones and wired telephone-based appliances that can send and receive E-mail and access the Web. Computer Terminals Computer terminals are undergoing a major conversion to networked computer devices. For example: †¢ Dumb terminals are keyboard/video monitor devices with limited processing capabilities, to intelligent terminals, which are modified networked PCs, network computers or other microcomputer-powered network devices. Intelligent terminals can perform data entry and some information processing tasks independently. †¢ Networked terminals which may be Windows terminals that are dependent on network servers for Windows software, processing power, and storage, or Internet terminals, which depend on Internet or intranet website servers for their operating systems and application software. †¢ Transaction terminals are a form of intelligent terminal. Uses can be found in banks retail stores, factories, and other work sites. Examples are ATM’s, factory production recorders, and POS terminals. MIDRANGE COMPUTER SYSTEMS Midrange computers, including minicomputers and high-end network servers, are  multi-user systems that can  manage networks of PCs and terminals. Characteristics of midrange computers include: †¢ Generally, midrange computers are general-purpose computers that are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful than most large mainframes. †¢ Cost less to buy, operate, and maintain than mainframe computers. †¢ Have become popular as powerful network servers to help manage large Internet websites, corporate intranets and extranets, and client/server networks. †¢ Electronic commerce and other business uses of the Internet are popular high-end server applications, as are integrated enterprisewide manufacturing, distribution, and financial applications. †¢ Data warehouse management, data mining, and online analytical processing are contributing to the growth of high-end servers and other midrange systems. †¢ First became popular as minicomputers for scientific research, instrumentation systems, engineering analysis, and industrial process monitoring and control. Minicomputers could easily handle such uses because these applications are narrow in scope and do not demand the processing versatility of mainframe systems. †¢ Serve as industrial process-control and manufacturing plant computers and they play a major role in computeraided manufacturing (CAM). †¢ Take the form of powerful technical workstations for computer-aided design (CAD) and other computation and graphics-intensive applications. †¢ Are used as front-end computers to assist mainframe computers in telecommunications processing and network management. †¢ Can function in ordinary operating environments (do not need air conditioning or electrical wiring). †¢ Smaller models of minicomputers do not need a staff of specialists to operate them. MIDRANGE COMPUTER APPLICATIONS Serve as industrial process-control and manufacturing plant computers. Play a major role in computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). Serve as powerful technical workstations for computer-aided design (CAD) and other computation and graphics-intensive applications Serve as front-end computers to assist mainframe computers in telecommunications processing and network management. Midrange Computer as Network Server: †¢ Electronic commerce and other business uses of the Internet are popular high-end server applications, as are integrated enterprisewide manufacturing, distribution, and financial applications. †¢ Other applications, like data warehouse management, data mining, and online analytical processing are contributing to the growth of high-end servers and other midrange systems. †¢ Serve as powerful network servers to help manage large Internet web sites, corporate Intranets and extranets, and client/server networks MAINFRAME COMPUTER SYSTEMS Mainframe computers are large, fast, and powerful computer systems. Characteristics of mainframe computers include: †¢ They are physically larger and more powerful than micros and minis. †¢ Can process hundreds of millions of instructions per second (MIPS). †¢ Have large primary storage capacities. Main memory capacity can range from hundreds of megabytes to many gigabytes of primary storage. †¢ Mainframes have slimmed down drastically in the last few years, dramatically reducing air-conditioning needs, electronic power consumption, and floor space requirements, and thus their acquisition and operating costs. †¢ Sales of mainframes have increased due to cost reductions and the increase  in applications such as data mining and warehousing, decision support, and electronic commerce. Mainframe Computer Applications: †¢ Handle the information processing needs of major corporations and government agencies with many employees and customers. †¢ Handle enormous and complex computational problems. †¢ Used in organisations processing great volumes of transactions. †¢ Handle great volumes of complex calculations involved in scientific and engineering analyses and simulations of complex design projects. †¢ Serve as superservers for the large client/server networks and high-volume Internet web sites of large companies. †¢ Are becoming a popular business-computing platform for data mining and warehousing, and electronic commerce applications. Supercomputer Systems: The term supercomputer describes a category of extremely powerful computer systems specifically designed for scientific, engineering, and business applications requiring extremely high-speeds for massive numeric computations. Supercomputer Applications: †¢ Used by government research agencies, large universities, and major corporations. †¢ Are used for applications such as global weather forecasting, military defence systems, computational cosmology and astronomy, microprocessor research and design, large scale data mining, large time-sharing networks, and so on. †¢ Use parallel processing architectures of interconnected microprocessors (which can execute many instructions at the same time in parallel). †¢ Can perform arithmetic calculations at speeds of billions of floating-point operations per second (gigaflops). Teraflop (1 trillion floating-point operations per second) supercomputers, which use advanced massively parallel  processing (MPP) designs of thousands of interconnected microprocessors, are becoming available. †¢ Purchase price for large supercomputers are in the $5 million to $50 million range. Mini-supercomputers: The use of symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) and distributed shared memory (DSM) designs of smaller numbers of interconnected microprocessors has spawned a breed of mini-supercomputer with prices that start in the hundreds of thousands of dollars. TECHNICAL NOTE: THE COMPUTER SYSTEM CONCEPTS – [Figure 13.9] As a business professional, you do not need a detailed technical knowledge of computers. However, you do need to understand some basic facts and concepts about computer systems. This should help you be an informed and productive user of computer system resources. A computer is a system, an interrelated combination of components that perform the basic system functions of input, processing, output, storage, and control, thus providing end users with a powerful information-processing tool. Understanding the computer as a computer system is vital to the effective use and management of computers. A computer is a system of hardware devices organised according to the following system functions: †¢ Input. Examples of some input devices of a computer system include: 1. Keyboards 2. Touch Screens3. Light Pens 4. Electronic Mice 4. Optical Scanners 5. Voice Input They convert data into electronic machine-readable form for direct entry or through a telecommunications network into a computer system. Processing. The central processing unit (CPU) is the main processing component of a computer system. (In microcomputers, it is the main microprocessor). One of the CPU’s major components is the arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) that performs the arithmetic and logic functions required in computer processing. Components of the CPU include: 1. Control Unit 2. Arithmetic-Logic Unit 3. Primary Storage Unit Output. Convert electronic information produced by the computer system into human-intelligible form for presentation to end-users. Examples of output devices include: 1. Video Display Units 2. Audio Response Units 3. Printers Storage. The storage function of a computer system is used to store data and program instructions needed for processing. Storage devices include: 1. Primary Storage Unit (main memory) 2. Secondary Storage Devices (magnetic disk and tape units, optical disks) Control. The control unit of a CPU interprets computer program instructions and transmits directions to the other components of the computer system. Computer Processing Speeds: Operating speeds of computers are measured in a number of ways. For example: †¢ Milliseconds – Thousands of a second. Microseconds – Millionths of a second. Nanoseconds – Billionth of a second Picosecond – Trillionth of a second Other terminology used includes: Teraflop – used by some supercomputers MIPS – Million instructions per second Megahertz (MHz) – Millions of cycles per second Gigahertz (GHz) – Billions of cycles per second Clock Speed – used to rate microprocessors by the speed of their timing circuits and internal clock. Section II: Computer Peripherals: Input, Output, and Storage Technologies INTRODUCTION A computer is just a high-powered â€Å"processing box† without peripherals. Your personal computing needs will dictate the components you choose for our particular computing needs. Analyzing United Technologies and Eastman Kodak We can learn a lot about the business value of consolidating computer operations and systems from this case. Take a few minutes to read it, and we will discuss it (See United Technologies and Eastman Kodak in Section IX). PERIPHERALS Peripherals are the generic name for all input, output, and secondary storage devices that are part of a computer system. Peripherals depend on direct connections or telecommunications links to the central processing unit of a  computer system. Thus, all peripherals are online devices, that is, separate from, but can be electronically connected to and controlled by, a CPU. This is the opposite of off-line devices, which are separate from and not under the control of the CPU. INPUT TECHNOLOGY There has been a major trend toward the increased use of input technologies that provide a more natural user interface for computer users. More and more data and commands are being entered directly and easily into computer systems through pointing devices like electronic mice and touch pads, and technologies like optical scanning, handwriting recognition, and voice recognition. POINTING DEVICES Keyboards are still the most widely used devices for entering data and text into computer systems. However, pointing devices are a better alternative for issuing commands, making choices, and responding to prompts displayed on your video screen. They work with your operating system’s graphical user interface (GUI), which presents you with icons, menus, windows, buttons, bars, and so on, for your selection. Examples of pointing devices include: †¢ Electronic Mouse – A device used to move the cursor on the screen, as well as to issue commands and make icon and menu selections. †¢ Trackball – A device used to move the cursor on the display screen. Pointing Stick – A small buttonlike device, sometimes likened to the eraser head of a pencil. The cursor moves in the direction of the pressure you place on the track point. Touchpad – A small rectangular touch-sensitive surface usually placed below the keyboard. The cursor moves in the direction your finger moves on the pad. Touch Screens – A device that accepts data input by the placement of a finger on or close to the CRT screen. PEN-BASED COMPUTING Pen-based computing technologies are being used in many hand-held computers and personal digital assistants. These small PCs and PDAs contain fast processors and software that recognises and digitises handwriting, hand printing, and hand drawing. They have a pressure-sensitive layer like a graphics pad under their slatelike liquid crystal display (LCD) screen. A variety of penlike devices are available: Digitizer Pen – A photoelectronic device that can be used as a pointing device, or used to draw or write on a pressure-sensitive surface of a graphics tablet. Graphics Tablet – A device that allows an end user to draw or write on a pressure-sensitive tablet and has their handwriting or graphics digitised by the computer and accepted as input. SPEECH RECOGNITION SYSTEMS Speech recognition and voice response (in their infancy) promise to be the easiest method of data entry, word processing, and conversational computing, since speech is the easiest, most natural means of human communication. Speech recognition systems analyse and classify speech or vocal tract patterns and convert them into digital codes for entry into a computer system. Early voice recognition products used discrete speech recognition, where you had to pause between each spoken word. New continuous speech recognition (CSR) software recognises controlled, conversationally paced speech. Examples of continuous speech recognition software include: †¢ NaturallySpeaking by Dragon Systems †¢ ViaVoice by IBM †¢ VoiceXpress by Lernout & Hauspie †¢ FreeSpeech by Philips Areas where speech recognition systems are used include: †¢ Manufacturers use it for inspection, inventory, and quality control †¢ Airlines and parcel delivery companies use it for voice-directed sorting of baggage and parcels †¢ Voice activated GPS systems are being used in advanced car design †¢ Physicians use it to enter and printout prescriptions †¢ Gemmologists use it to free up their hands when inspecting and grading precious stones †¢ Handicapped individuals use voice-enabled software to operate their computers, e-mail, and surf the World Wide Web. Speaker-independent voice recognition systems allow a computer to understand a few words from a voice it has never heard before. They enable computers to respond to verbal and touch-tone input over the telephone. Examples include: †¢ Computerized telephone call switching †¢ Telemarketing surveys †¢ Bank pay-by-phone bill-paying services †¢ Stock quotations services †¢ University registration systems †¢ Customer credit and account balance inquiries OPTICAL SCANNING Optical scanning devices read text or graphics and convert them into digital input for a computer. Optical scanning enables the direct entry of data from source documents into a computer system. Popular uses of optical scanning include: †¢ Scanning pages of text and graphics into your computer for desktop publishing and web publishing applications. †¢ Scan documents into your system and organize them into folders as part of a document management library system for easy reference or retrieval.  There are many types of optical scanners, but they all employ photoelectric devices to scan the characters being read. Reflected light patterns of the  data are converted into electronic impulses that are then accepted as input into the computer system. Optical scanning technology known as optical character recognition (OCR) can read special-purpose characters and codes. OCR scanners are used to read characters and codes on:   Merchandise tags Product labels Credit card receipts Utility bills Insurance premiums Airline tickets Sort mail Score tests Process business and government forms Devices such as handheld optical scanning wands are used to read OCR coding on merchandise tags and other media. Many business applications involve reading bar code, a code that utilises bars to represent characters. One common example is the Universal Produce Code (UPC) bar coding that you see on packages of food items and many other products. OTHER INPUT TECHNOLOGIES Magnetic stripe technology is a familiar form of data entry that helps computers read credit cards. The dark magnetic stripe on the back of such cards is the same iron oxide coating as on magnetic tape. Smart cards that embed a microprocessor chip and several kilobytes of memory into debit, credit, and other cards are popular in Europe, and becoming available in the United States. Digital cameras and digital video cameras enable you to shoot, store, and download still photos or full motion video with audio into your PC. Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) is machine recognition of characters printed with magnetic ink. Primarily used for check processing by the banking industry. OUTPUT TECHNOLOGIES Computers provide information in a variety of forms. Video displays and printed documents have been, and still are, the most common forms of output from computer systems. But other natural and attractive output technologies such as voice response systems and multimedia output are increasingly found along with video displays in business applications. VIDEO OUTPUT Video displays are the most common type of computer output. Most desktop computers rely on video monitors that use cathode ray tube (CRT) technology. Usually, the clarity of the video display depends on the type of video monitor you use and the graphics circuit board installed in your computer. A high-resolution, flicker-free monitor is especially important if you spend a lot of time viewing multimedia on CDs or the Web, or complex graphical displays of many software packages. The biggest use of liquid crystal displays (LCDs) is to provide a visual display capability for portable microcomputers and PDAs. LCD displays need significantly less electric current and provide a thin, flat display. Advances in technology such as active matrix and dual scan capabilities have improved the color and clarity of LCD displays. PRINTED OUTPUT After video displays, printed output is the most common form of output displays. Most personal computer systems rely on inkjet or laser printers to produce permanent (hard copy) output in high-quality printed form. Printed output is still a common form of business communications, and is frequently required for legal documentation. †¢ Inkjet printers – Spray ink onto a page one line at a time. They are popular, low-cost printers for microcomputer systems. They are quiet, produce several pages per minute of high-quality output, and can print both black-and-white and high-quality colour graphics. Laser Printers – Use an electrostatic process similar to a photocopying machine to produce many pages per minute of high-quality black-and-white output. More expensive colour laser printers and multifunction inkjet and laser models that print, fax, scan, and copy are other popular choices for business offices. STORAGE TRADE-OFFS Data and information need to be stored after input, during processing, and before output. Computer-based information systems rely primarily on the memory circuits and secondary storage devices of computer systems to accomplish the storage function. Major trends in primary and secondary storage methods: †¢ Progress in very-large scale integration (VLSI), which packs millions of memory circuit elements on tiny semiconductor memory chips, are responsible for continuing increases in the main-memory capacity of computers. †¢ Secondary storage capacities are also expected to escalate into the billions and trillions of characters, due primarily to the use of optical media.  Storage Trade-offs: Speed, capacity, and cost relationships. †¢ Note the cost/speed/capacity trade-offs as one moves from semiconductor memories to magnetic media, such as magnetic disks and tapes, to optical disks. †¢ High-speed storage media cost more per byte and provide lower capacities. †¢ Large capacity storage media cost less per byte but are slower †¢ Semiconductor memories are used mainly for primary storage, though they are sometimes used as high-speed secondary storage devices. †¢ Magnetic disk and tape and optical disk devices are used as secondary storage devices to greatly enlarge the storage capacity of computer systems. †¢ Most primary storage circuits use RAM (random access memory) chips, which lose their contents when electrical power is interrupted †¢ Secondary storage devices provide a more permanent type of storage media for storage of data and programs. Computer Storage Fundamentals: [Figure 13.20] Data is processed and stored in a computer system through the presence or absence of electronic or magnetic signals in the computer’s circuitry in the media it uses. This is called a â€Å"two-state† or binary representation of data, since the computer and media can exhibit only two possible states or conditions – ON (1) or OFF (0). Computer storage elements: †¢ Bit – is the smallest element of data, (binary digit) which can have a value of zero or one. The capacity of  memory chips is usually expressed in terms of bits. Byte – is the basic grouping of bits that the computer operates as a single unit. It typically consists of 8 bits and is used to represent one character of data in most computer coding schemes (e.g. 8 bits = 1 byte). The capacity of a computer’s memory and secondary storage devices is usually expressed in terms of bytes. ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) Pronounced: EB SEE DICK Storage capacities are frequently measured in: Kilobyte = 1,000 bytes Megabyte = 1,000,000 bytes Gigabyte = 1,000,000,000 bytes Terabyte = 1,000,000,000,000 bytes Petabyte = 1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes Exabyte = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes Zettabyte = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes Yottabyte = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes Direct and Sequential Access †¢ Direct Access – Primary storage media such as semiconductor memory chips are called direct access or random access memories (RAM). Magnetic disk devices are frequently called direct access storage devices (DASDs). The terms direct access and random access describe the same concept. They mean that an element of data or instructions can be directly stored and retrieved by selecting and using any of the locations on the storage media. They also mean that each storage position (1) has a unique address and (2) can be individually accessed in approximately the same length of time without having to search through other storage positions. Sequential Access – sequential access storage media such as magnetic tape do not have unique storage addresses that can be directly addressed. Instead, data must be stored and retrieved using a sequential or serial process. Data are recorded one after another in a predetermined sequence on a storage medium. Locating an individual item of data requires searching much of the recorded data on the tape until the desired item is located. SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY The primary storage (main memory) on most modern computers consists of microelectronic semiconductor memory circuits. Plug-in memory circuit boards containing 32 megabytes or more of memory chips can be added to your PC to increase its memory capacity. Specialized memory can help improve your computer’s performance. Examples include: †¢ External cache memory of 512 kilobytes to help your microprocessor work faster †¢ Video graphics accelerator cards with 16 megabytes of RAM are used for faster and clearer video performance †¢ Removable credit-card-size and smaller â€Å"flash memory† RAM cards provide several megabytes of erasable direct access storage for PDAs or hand-held PCs. Some of the major attractions of semiconductor memory are: †¢ Small size †¢ Fast speed †¢ Shock and temperature resistance One major disadvantage of most semiconductor memory is: †¢ Volatility – Uninterrupted electric power must be supplied or the contents of memory will be lost (except with  read only memory, which is permanent). There are two basic types of semiconductor memory: †¢ Random Access Memory (RAM) – these memory chips are the most widely used primary storage medium. Each memory position can be both read and written, so it is also called read/write memory. This is a volatile memory. †¢Ã‚  Read Only Memory (ROM) – Non-volatile random access memory chips are used for permanent storage. ROM can be read but not erased or overwritten. Instructions and programs in primary storage can be permanently â€Å"burned in†Ã‚  to the storage cells during manufacturing. This permanent software is also called firmware. Variations include PROM (programmable read only memory) and EPROM (erasable programmable read only memory), which can be permanently or temporarily programmed after manufacture. MAGNETIC DISK STORAGE These are the most common forms of secondary storage for modern computer systems. That’s because they provide fast access and high storage capacities at a reasonable cost. Characteristics of magnetic disks: †¢ Disk drives contain metal disks that are coated on both sides with an iron oxide recording material. †¢ Several disks are mounted together on a vertical shaft, which typically rotates the disks are speeds of 3,600 to 7,600 revolutions per minute (rpm) †¢ Access arms between the slightly separated disks to read and write data on concentric, circular tracks position electromagnetic read/write heads. †¢ Data are recorded on tracks in the form of tiny magnetized spots to form the binary digits of common computer codes. †¢ Thousands of bytes can be recorded on each track, and there are several hundred data tracks on each disk surface, which provides you with billions of storage positions for software and data. Types of Magnetic Disks There are several types of magnetic disk arrangements, including disk cartridges as well as fixed disk units. Removable disk devices are popular because they are transportable and can be used to store backup copies of your data off-line for convenience and security. Floppy Disks, or magnetic disks, consist of polyester film disks covered with an iron oxide compound. A single disk is mounted and rotates freely inside a protective flexible or hard plastic jacket, which has access openings to accommodate the read/write head of a disk drive unit. The 3-1/2-inch floppy disk, with capacities of 1.44 megabytes, is the most widely used version, with a newer Superdisk technology offering 120 megabytes of storage. Hard Disk Drives combine magnetic disks, access arms, and read/write heads into a sealed module. This allows higher speeds, greater data-recording densities,  and closer tolerances within a sealed, more stable environment. Fixed or removable disk cartridge versions are available. Capacities of hard drives range from several hundred megabytes to many gigabytes of storage. RAID Storage Disk arrays of interconnected microcomputer hard disk drives have replaced large-capacity mainframe disk drives to provide many gigabytes of online storage. Known as RAID (redundant arrays of independent disks), they combine from 6 to more than 100 small hard disk drives and their control microprocessors into a single unit. Advantages of RAID disks include: †¢ Provide large capacities with high access speeds since data is accessed in parallel over multiple paths from many disks. †¢ Provide fault tolerant capability, since their redundant design offers multiple copies of data on several disks. If one disk fails, data can be recovered from backup copies automatically stored on other disks. †¢ Storage area networks (SANs) are high-speed fibre channel local area networks that can interconnect many RAID units and share their combined capacity through network servers for many users. MAGNETIC TAPE STORAGE Magnetic Tape is still being used as a secondary storage medium in business applications. The read/write heads of magnetic tape drives record data in the form of magnetised spots on the iron oxide coating of the plastic tape. Magnetic tape devices include tape reels and cartridges in mainframes and midrange systems, and small cassettes or cartridges for PCs. These devices serve as slower, but lower cost, storage to supplement magnetic disks to meet massive data warehouse and other business storage requirements. Other major applications for magnetic tape include long-term archival storage and backup storage for PCs and other systems. OPTICAL DISK STORAGE Optical disk storage involves technology, which is based on using a laser to read tiny spots on a plastic disk. The disks are currently capable of storing billions of characters of information. †¢Ã‚  CD-ROM – A common type of optical disk used on microcomputers. They are used for read only storage. Storage is over 600 megabytes per disk. This is equivalent to over 400 1.44-megabyte floppy disks or 300,000 double-spaced pages of text. Data are recorded as microscopic pits in a spiral track, and are read using a laser device. Limitation: Recorded data cannot be erased †¢Ã‚  CD-R – (Compact disk recordable) is another optical disk technology. It enables computers with CD-R disk drive units to record their own data once on a CD, and then be able to read the data indefinitely. Limitation: Recorded data cannot be erased †¢Ã‚  CD-RW – (CD-rewritable) optical disk systems have now become available which record and erase data by using a laser to heat a microscopic point on the disk’s surface. In CD-RW versions using magneto-optical technology, a magnetic coil changes the spot’s reflective properties from one direction to another, thus recording a binary one to zero. A laser device can then read the binary codes on the disk by sensing the direction of reflected light. †¢Ã‚  DVD – (Digital Video Disk or Digital Versatile Disk) can hold from 3.0 to 8.5 gigabytes of multimedia data on each side of a compact disk. The large capacities and high- quality images and sound of DVD technology are expected to eventually replace CD-ROM and CD-RW technologies for data storage, and  promise to accelerate the use of DVD drives for multimedia products that can be used in both computers and home entertainment systems. †¢ DVD-ROM is beginning to replace magnetic tape videocassettes for movies and other multimedia products. †¢ DVD – RAM is being used for backup and archival storage data and multimedia files. Business Applications One of the major uses of optical disks in mainframe and midrange systems is in image processing, where longterm archival storage of historical files of document images must be maintained. Mainframe and midrange computer versions of optical disks use 12-inch plastic disks with capacities of several gigabytes, with up to 20 disks held in jukebox drive units. WORM – (Write Once, Read Many) versions of optical disks are used to store data on the disk. Although data can only be stored once, it can be read an infinite number of times. One of the major business uses of CD-ROM disks for personal computers is to provide a publishing medium for fast access to reference materials in a convenient, compact form. These include: †¢ Catalogs †¢ Directories †¢ Manuals †¢Ã‚  Periodical abstracts †¢Ã‚  Part listings †¢Ã‚  Statistical databases of business activity and economic activity Interactive multimedia applications in business, education, and entertainment using CD-ROM and DVD disks. Optical disks have become a popular storage medium for image processing and multimedia business applications and they appear to be a promising alternative to magnetic disks and tape for very large mass storage capabilities for enterprise computing systems. However, rewritable optical technologies are still being perfected. Also, most optical disk devices are significantly slower and more expensive (per byte of storage) than magnetic disk devices. So optical disk systems are not expected to displace magnetic disk technology in the near future for most business applications. IV. KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS – DEFINED Binary Representation: Pertaining to the presence or absence of electronic or magnetic â€Å"signals† in the computer’s circuitry or in the media it uses. There are only two possible states or conditions – presence or absence. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The unit of a computer system that includes the circuits that controls the interpretation and execution of instructions. In many computer systems, the CPU includes the arithmetic-logic unit, the control unit, and primary storage unit. Computer System: Computer hardware as a system of input, processing, output, storage, and control components. Thus a computer system consists of input and output devices, primary and secondary storage devices, the central processing unit, the control unit within the CPU, and other peripheral devices. Computer Terminal: Any input/output device connected by telecommunications links to a computer. Digital Cameras: Digital still cameras and digital video cameras enable you to shoot, store, and download still photos or full-motion video with audio in your PC. Direct Access: A method of storage where each storage position has a unique address and can be individually accessed in approximately the same period of time without having to search through other storage positions. Information Appliance: Devices for consumers to access the Internet. Laptop Computer: A small portable PC. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD): Electronic visual displays that form characters by applying an electrical charge to selected silicon crystals. Magnetic Disk Storage: Data storage technology that uses magnetised spots on metal or plastic disks. Magnetic Disk Storage – Floppy Disk: Small phonograph record enclosed in a protective envelope. It is a widely used form of magnetic disk media that provides a direct access storage capability for microcomputer systems. Magnetic Disk Storage – Hard Disk Secondary storage medium; generally nonremovable disks made out of metal and covered with a magnetic  recording surface. It holds data in the form of magnetised spots. Magnetic Disk Storage – RAID Redundant array of independent disks. Magnetic disk units that house many interconnected microcomputer hard disk drives, thus providing large, fault tolerant storage capacities. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): The machine recognition of characters printed with magnetic ink. Primarily used for check processing by the banking industry. Magnetic Stripe: A magnetic stripe card is a plastic wallet-size card with a strip of magnetic tape on one surface; widely used for credit/debit cards. Magnetic Tape: A plastic tape with a magnetic surface on which data can be stored by selective magnetisation of portions of the surface. Mainframe Computer: A larger-size computer system, typically with a separate central processing unit, as distinguished from microcomputer and minicomputer systems. Microcomputer: A very small computer, ranging in size from a â€Å"Computer on a chip† to a small typewriter-size unit. Microprocessor: A semiconductor chip with circuitry for processing data. Midrange Computer: Larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful than most large mainframe computer systems. Minicomputer: A small electronic general-purpose computer. Network Computer: A new category of microcomputer designed mainly for use with the Internet and Intranets on tasks requiring limited or specialised applications and no or minimal disk storage. Network Server: A type of midrange computer used to co-ordinate telecommunications and resource sharing and manages large web sites, Intranets, extranets, and client/server networks. Network Terminal: A terminal that depends on network servers for its software and processing power. Off-line: Pertaining to equipment or devices not under control of the central processing unit. Online: Pertaining to equipment or devices under control of the central processing unit. Optical Character Recognition (OCR): The machine identification of printed characters through the use of light-sensitive devices. Optical Disk Storage: Technology based on using a laser to read tiny spots on a plastic disk. The disks are currently capable of storing billions of characters of information. Optical Disk Storage – CD-ROM: An optical disk technology for microcomputers featuring compact disks with a storage capacity of over 500 megabytes. Optical Disk Storage – CD-R: Compact disk recordable (CD-R) enables computers with CD-R disk drive units to record their own data once on a CD, than be able to read the data indefinitely. Optical Disk Storage – CD-RW: Compact disk rewritable (CD-RW) enables computers with CD-RW disk drive units to record and erase data by using a laser to heat a microscopic point on the disk’s surface. Optical Disk Storage – DVD: Digital video disk or digital versatile disk (DVD) enables computers with DVD disk drive units to hold from 3.0 to 8.5 gigabytes of multimedia data on each side of a compact disk. Optical Disk Storage – WORM Disk: Optical disk that allows users to write once, read many times. Optical Scanning: Using a device (scanner) that scans characters or images and generates their digital representations. Pen-Based Computing: Tablet-style microcomputers that recognise hand-writing and hand-drawing done by a pen-shaped device on their pressure sensitive display screens. Peripheral Devices: In a computer system, any unit of equipment, distinct from the central processing unit, that provides the system with input, output, or storage capabilities. Personal Digital Assistant: Handheld microcomputer devices, which are designed for convenient mobile communications and computing. Pointing Devices: Devices, which allow end users to issue commands or make choices by moving a cursor on the display, screen. Pointing Device – Electronic Mouse: A small device that is electronically connected to a computer and is moved by hand on a flat surface in order to move the cursor on a video screen in the same direction. Buttons on the mouse allow users to issue commands and make  responses or selections. Pointing Device – Pointing Stick: A small buttonlike device sometimes likened to the eraser head of a pencil. The cursor moves in the direction of the pressure you place on the track point. Pointing Device – Touchpad: Is a small rectangular touch-sensitive surface usually placed below the keyboard. The cursor moves in the direction your finger moves on the pad. Pointing Device – Trackball: A roller device set in a case used to move the cursor on a computer’s display screen. Primary Storage: The main (or internal) memory of a computer. Usually in the form of semiconductor storage. Printers: Devices that produce hard copy output such as paper documents or reports. Secondary Storage: External or auxiliary storage device that supplements the primary storage of a computer. Semiconductor Memory: Microelectronic storage circuitry etched on tiny chips of silicon or other semiconducting material. Semiconductor Memory – RAM: Also known as main memory or primary storage; type of memory that temporarily holds data and instructions needed shortly by the CPU. RAM is a volatile type of storage. Semiconductor Memory – ROM: Also known as firmware; a memory chip that permanently stores instructions and data that are programmed during the chip’s manufacture. Three variations on the ROM chip are PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. ROM is a nonvolatile form of storage. Sequential Access: A sequential method of storing and retrieving data from a file. Smart Cards: Cards such as debit and credit cards, which have an embedded microprocessor chip and several kilobytes of memory. Speech Recognition: Direct conversion of spoken data into electronic form suitable for entry into a computer system. Promises to be the easiest, most natural way to communicate with computers. Storage Capacity Elements: Units used for storage capacity and data: bits, bytes, kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB), terabytes (TB). Storage Capacity Elements – Bit: A contraction of â€Å"binary digit†. It can have the value of either 0 or 1. Storage Capacity Elements – Byte: A sequence of adjacent binary digits operated on as a unit and usually shorter than a computer word. In many computer systems, a byte is a grouping of eight bits that can represent one alphabetic or special character or can be â€Å"packed† with two decimal digits. Storage Capacity Elements – Kilobyte (K or KB): When referring to computer storage capacity it is equivalent to 2 to the 10th power, or 1,014 in decimal notation. Storage Capacity Elements – Megabyte (MB): One million bytes. More accurately, 2 to the 20th power, 1,048,576 in decimal notation. Storage Capacity Elements – Gigabyte (GB): One billion bytes. More accurately, 2 to the 30th power, or 1,073,741,824 in decimal notation. Storage Capacity Elements – Terabyte (TB): One trillion bytes. More accurately, 2 to the 40th power, or 1,009,511,627,776 in decimal notation. Storage Media Trade-offs: The trade-offs in cost, speed, and capacity of various storage media. Supercomputer: A special category of large computer systems that are the most powerful available. They are designed to solve massive computational problems. Time Elements: Units used for measuring processing speeds: milliseconds, microseconds, nanoseconds, and picoseconds. Time Elements – Millisecond: A thousandth of a second. Time Elements – Microsecond: A millionth of a second. Time Elements – Nanosecond: One billionth of a second. Time Elements – Picosecond: One trillionth of a second. Touch-Sensitive Screen: An input device that accepts data input by the placement of a finger on or close to the CRT screen. Transaction Terminals: Terminals used in banks, retail stores, factories, and other work sites that are used to capture transaction data at their point of origin. Examples are point-of-sale (POS) terminals and automated teller machines (ATMs). Video Output: Video displays are the most common type of computer output. Volatility: Memory (such as electronic semiconductor memory) that loses its contents when electrical power is interrupted. Wand: A handheld optical character recognition device used for data entry by many transaction terminals. Workstation: A computer terminal or micro- or minicomputer system designed to support the work of one person. Also, a highpowered computer to support the work of professionals in engineering, science, and other areas that require extensive computing power and graphics capabilities. V. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Do you agree with the statement: â€Å"The network is the computer†?   What trends are occurring in the development and use of the major types of computer systems? Do you think that network computers (NCs) will replace personal computers (PCs) in business applications? Are networks of PCs and servers making mainframe computers obsolete?   What  trends are occurring in the development and use of peripheral devices? Why are those trends occurring? When would you recommend the use of each of the following:   Network computers NetPCs Network terminals Information appliances in business applications What processor, memory, magnetic disk storage, and video display capabilities would you require for a personal computer that you would use for business purposes?   What other peripheral devices and capabilities would you want to have for your business PC?